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Keep in mind that many of these studies have major methodological
flaws. As you read the results summaries of these studies, consider possible
problems with research design and/or interpretation of results.
For the in-class assignment, students will be asked to determine which
of these studies are relevant to each theory, and come to conclusions
about the degree to which each theory is supported by evidence.
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Although studies vary in their estimates of the proportion of the
population that is homosexual, all agree that there are fewer female
homosexuals (usually 3-5%) than male homosexuals (usually 5-10%).
(This does not include bi-sexuals.)
Marmor, J.(1980). Overview: The multiple roots of homosexual
behavior. In J. Marmor (Ed.), Homosexual behavior: A modern reappraisal.
New York: Basic Books.
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In 1962, a psychoanalyst Bieber (1962) observed 100 male homosexuals
that he was seeing for psychoanalytic treatment. He believed, based on
Freud, that certain characteristics of parents could produce homosexual
children. He reported that all of the male homosexuals he treated had
a hostile, detached father and a close, dominating mother.
Bieber's study is summarized in:
Marmor, J.(1980). Overview: The multiple roots of homosexual behavior.
In J. Marmor (Ed.), Homosexual behavior: A modern reappraisal.
New York: Basic Books.
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Some people can become conditioned (through chance association) to become
sexually aroused by a previously neutral stimulus such as black boots.
This is called a fetish. Examples of fetishes are feet, specific items
of clothing, window-peeking, preference for partners MUCH older than oneself,
etc. Fetishes can sometimes be removed with a conditioning-based procedure
called
aversion therapy, in which fetish item/activities are paired with something
aversive like shock or nausea.
Aversion therapy rarely works for homosexuals. It is only effective for
bisexuals & a very few highly motivated homosexuals (who probably
could have changed without it). Often when it does work, the effects are
temporary.
Summary of research:
Brown, R. (1985). Social psychology, the second edition. New York:
Free Press.
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Among females, there is no difference between homosexuals and heterosexuals
in the % of individuals whose first sexual partner was a male and the
% of individuals whose first partner was a female.
Among males, homosexuals are more likely than heterosexuals to have had
a female for their first sexual partner.
Many homosexuals have first sexual experience with someone of the opposite
sex.
Some heterosexuals have their first experience with someone of the same
sex.
Kinsey report
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Representative samples of adult homosexuals and heterosexuals were compared,
matching the two groups for lifestyles that might affect hormone levels
and averaging multiple measurements of hormone levels (which fluctuate
greatly over the course of days and even within a day). There was found
to be no statistically significant difference in hormone levels between
adult heterosexuals and homosexuals.
Parks, et al. (1974)
Also, a review of research on hormones of adult homosexuals
found no differences overall (Gartrell, 1982). Others who have sytematically
reviewed the research have reached the same conclusions-- no differences
between homosexuals and heterosexuals in hormone levels or physiological
functioning.
Masters & Johnson (1979), Meyer-Bahlburg (1977), Schiavi
& White (1976), Tourney (1980), Birke (1981), Money (1980), Gartrell
(1982)
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Experimentally exposing female rat fetuses to large doses of male hormones
produces female rats that display mounting behavior that is typically
displayed by male rats.
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When representative samples of homosexuals in the general population
are compared with representative samples of heterosexuals in the general
population, there is found to be no difference in the % of individuals
with detached, hostile fathers or close, dominating mothers.
Marmor, J.(1980). Overview: The multiple roots of homosexual
behavior. In J. Marmor (Ed.), Homosexual behavior: A modern reappraisal.
New York: Basic Books.
Green, R. (1980). Patterns of sexual identity in childhood: Relationship
to subsequent sexual partner preference. In J. Marmor (Ed.), Homosexual
behavior: A modern reappraisal. New York: Basic Books.
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18% of individuals with congenital virilizing adrenal hyperplasia (CVAH)
or androgenital syndrome (AGS) become homosexual as adults (compared to
3-5% of females as a whole).
Individuals with CVAH/AGS are chromosomally female (XX) and have ovaries,
but their external genitals are masculinized or ambiguous at birth. They
are given corrective surgery in early childhood and raised as girls. They
develop into adult females if given long-term hormone therapy in adolescence.
Photo 1
Photo 2
Photo 3
Photos from Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972). Man
and woman, boy and girl. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
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Individuals with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) are not especially
likely to be homosexual.
AIS occurs when a rare genetic defect makes a male fetus unresponsive
to the effects of testosterone in the womb; the child is chromosomally
a male (XY), but has female or ambiguous genitals and cannot reproduce.
The individual is given corrective surgery in childhood if necessary,
and hormone therapy in adolescence, and may be raised as a girl or a boy,
depending on the specific case.
Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972). Man and woman,
boy and girl. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
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Several studies have shown that homosexual males generally start experiencing
sex drive earlier than do heterosexual males. For example, 60-80% of homosexual
men, versus 20-30% of heterosexual men, reported the following before
age 13: masturbation, ejaculation, sexual attraction, sexual arousal,
sexual fantasizing.
Kinsey et al. (1948), Manosevitz (1970. 1972), Saghir
& Robins (1973)
Studies shown also shown that homosexual females generally start experiencing
sex drive earlier than do heterosexual females. Compared to heterosexual
women, homosexual women report masturbating at earlier ages, more frequent
masturbation at earlier ages, and earlier sexual arousal and sexual fantasizing.
Goode & Haber (1977), Saghir & Robins (1973)
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In a longitudinal study, researchers directly observered boys' biological
growth around the time of puberty. They noted the age at which growth
spurts, pubic hair, etc. appeared. They divided the boys in to early maturers
and late maturers. Later, when the boys were 16-18 years old, tests indicated
that the early maturers had less heterosexual inclinations than did the
late maturers (although the test was not an ideal measure of sexual orientation).
Jones (1957), Jones & Bayley (1950), Mussen &
Jones (1957, 1958)
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Compared to our society, there is more adult homosexuality in societies
that encourage prolonged exclusively same-sex friendships. An example
of this would be in upper social classes in Great Britain upper classes,
in which it is quite common for kids to attend same-sex boarding schools
until age 17 or 18.
Compared to our society, there is more adult homosexuality in societies
that encourage adolescent boys to have temporary homosexual relations
with an older man. This occurs in a few Arab, African, & Polynesian
cultures.
These patterns have been suggested by many researchers, but Storms (1981)
reports that comparative data for a good test of the hypotheses do not
exist.
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Gay males are slightly more likely than heterosexual males to have one
or more gay siblings.
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Prior to age 13, 60% of males report homosexual experiences (could be
sex-play) and 40% report heterosexual experiences (some may report both).
Between age 13 and age 15, of all the sexual experiences reported by males,
25% were homosexual and 75% were heterosexual.
Between age 16 and age 20, of all the sexual experiences reported by males,
15% were homosexual and 85% were heterosexual.
Prior to age 13, females report equal numbers of homosexual and heterosexual
experiences.
Between age 13 and 15, of all the sexual experiences reported by females,
30% were homosexual and 70% were heterosexual.
Between age 16 and age 20, of all the sexual experiences reported by females,
10% were homosexual and 90% were heterosexual.
Kinsey (1948, 1953)
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Bailey, et al. (2000) found that among Australian twins in a genetic study,
childhood gender nonconformity was significantly heritable for both men
and women. However, neither sexual orientation nor gender identity were
significantly heritable.
Bailey, J. M., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000).
Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates
in an Australian twin sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
84, 524-536.
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Patterson (1992) reviewed research on the children of lesbian mothers.
Most of the lesbian mothers in these studies were white, well-educated,
and had children while they were in a marriage which later ended in divorce
when the mother came out as a lesbian.
The children were found to identify with their own gender and to have
typical gender-based preferences. As adolescents, most were heterosexual.
Children of lesbian mothers also resembled children of heterosexuals in
self concept, social skills, moral reasoning, and intelligence.
Patterson, C. J. (1992). Children of lesbian and gay parents.
Child Development, 63, 1025-1042.
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Homosexual parents (biological or adoptive) and heterosexual parents are
equally likely to have homosexual children. Parents’ sexual orientation
is not related to their child’s sexual orientation.
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Female sexual orientation is more fluid than male sexual orientation.
Bisexuality and “changes” in sexual orientation are common among
females, and are more common than among males.
For example, a study by Diamond (2003) tracked young lesbian and bisexual
women over a 5-year period. Over 1/4 of the women gave up their lesbian
or bisexual identity at some point during the 5-year period. The women
who gave up their identities did NOT differ from those who maintained
their lesbian/bisexual identities in (all measured at the beginning of
the 5-year period):
Age they first identified themselves as lesbian or bisexual
Events that led to their sexual questioning
Recollection of childhood gender identity
Diamond, L. M. (2000). Was it a phase? Young women's relinquishment
of lesbian/bisexual identities over a 5-year period. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 84, 352-364.
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In a survey of a random sample of US adults, homosexuals were no more
likely than heterosexuals to have been seduced or sexually abused in childhood
or adolescence by an older same-sex person (Rind et al., 1998).
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Most gay adult men report rejecting stereotypical boy behaviors and toys
at an early age, although their parents pressured them to conform. According
to a meta-analysis of 48 studies, 63% of gay men and lesbians (vs. 10%
of straight men and 15% of straight women) report not enjoying gender
stereotypical activities in childhood (Bailey & Zucker, 1995).
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A San Francisco study showed that half of heterosexual women considered
themselves tomboys in childhood (Peplau, 1996).
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LeVay (1991) reported that, in one area of the hypothalamus, gay men are
more similar to heterosexual women than to heterosexual men.
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There is no known family situation or type of parent that leads a child
to become homosexual in adulthood.
This is not a specific study, but the notable absence of results from
this type of study (at least, studies without major methodological flaws).
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Kallmann (1952) reported a 100% concordance in overt heterosexual and
homosexual behavior for identical twins, and a lower concordance for non-identical
twins.
Heston and Shields (1968) reviewed all records in a twin registry at a
London hospital. Only four cases (all men) were found in which one identical
twin identified himself as homosexual. Two of their twin brothers were
also homosexual, and two were heterosexual.
As of 1985, these were the only two studies examining homosexuality in
identical twins. (More research has been done since then.)
Kallmann, F. J. (1952). Comparative twin study on the
genetic aspects of male homosexuality. Journal of Nervous and Mental
Diseases, 115, 283-298.
Heston, L. L. (1968). Homosexuality in twins. Archives of General Psychiatry,
18, 149-160.
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The vast majority of gay men and lesbians do NOT have a close gay or lesbian
relative. Even the identical twins of gays/lesbians are mostly heterosexual
(Peplau et al., 2000).
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Homosexual behavior has been observed in barnyard animals (bulls, cows,
stallions, donkeys, cats, rams goats, pigs), 18 species in captivity (including
rats, antelope, elephants, hyenas, monkeys, apes, rabbits, lions, porcupines,
hamsters, mice, porpoises). For example, two female macaque monkeys were
observed giving each other orgasms.
Homosexual behavior has also been observed in several species in the wild--
anolis lizards, mountain sheep, seagulls, langurs, bonobo chimpanzees.
See book on reserve in the library, starting p.99, for
info and photos on homosexuality in bonobos:
De Waal, F. (1997). Bonobo: The forgotten ape. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
Weinrich, J. D. (1982). Is homosexuality biological natural? In W. Paul,
J. D. Weinrich, J. C. Gonsiorek, & M. E. Hotvedt (Eds.), Homosexuality:
Social, psychological, and biological issues. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
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Much research shows that adults’ reports of their childhood behaviors
and feelings are colored by their current situation. Peplau (1996) argues
that gay/lesbian adults are more likely than heterosexual adults to remember
incidents of childhood gender nonconformity because it fits with their
current nonconformity.
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Storms (1980) asked normal (not psychiatric patients) homosexuals, bisexuals,
and heterosexuals to rate themselves on a well-accepted masculinity-femininity
questionnaire that includes many different personality traits. There were
no significant differences among these three groups. Certain aspects of
the data made it UNlikely that the failure to find differences was due
to self-presentation (homosexuals deliberately reporting higher levels
of gender-appropriate traits in order to counteract stereotypes).
Storms, M. D. (1980). Theories of sexual orientation.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 783-792.
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Garner and Smith (1977) surveyed intercollegiate male athletes in three
major sports at three major state universities. They found 25% had had
a homosexual experience (two or more incidents of oral-genital or anal-genital
sex during the previous 2 years) and 6% were exclusively homosexual. In
comparison, the best estimates for all college-aged males in the 1970's:
15-17% involved in some homosexual experience during college and 2-4%
exclusively homosexual.
Garner, B., & Smith, R. W.
(1977). Are there really any gay male athletes? Journal of Sex Research,
13, 22-34.
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